The prevalence of stress during the COVID-19 pandemic: an umbrella review

Abstract

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has caused widespread mental health problems, with stress affecting a large porportion of the global population. To provide a comprehensive understanding of the need for post-pandemic mental health services, this umbrella review was conducted to accurately estimate the prevalence of stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and Embase were searched for published meta-analyses using relevant keywords, such as prevalence, stress, COVID-19, and Meta-analysis up to January 1, 2025. Additional manual searches were performed in selected journals and through Google Scholar to identify further relevant articles. A random-effects model was used for the analyses. All analyses were conducted using STATA 17 software. Results Of 3697 records screened, 45 meta-analyses were included. The pooled prevalence of stress was 41 95% CI: 36-45 with high heterogeneity (I-2: 93.22%). The highest prevalence was observed in patients (56% 49-63) and health-care workers (45% 38-52). The prevalence of stress was higher in females (40% 18-63) compared with males (27% 3-50). In terms of severity, the highest percentage was related to moderate 29% 7-50, mild 24% 6-41, and severe 13% 5-21. Conclusions Stress was highly prevalent during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly among patients, healthcare workers, pregnant womens, and students. Policy responses should prioritize funding, advocacy and system-level interventions to mitigate the mental health impact of pandemics and strengthen resilience in preparation for future public health crises.