Iron-doped carbon-based nanoparticles: emerging strategies in cancer therapeutics

Abstract

Iron-doped Carbon-based nanoparticles (Fe-CBNs) are emerging as highly versatile platforms for precision oncology by integrating catalytic, magnetic, optical, and immunomodulatory functions within a single construct. This review first outlines the fundamentals of Fe incorporation into graphitic and amorphous carbon matrices, emphasizing how iron speciation, heteroatom (e.g., N) co-doping, and carbon architecture tune electronic structure, surface polarity, and redox microenvironments. We then survey key synthetic routes, including biomass pyrolysis, plasma, sol-gel, chemical vapor deposition, hydrothermal and microwave-assisted methods that afford precise control over core-shell morphology, pore structure, and Fe-N-C active sites. These structural attributes underpin unique properties relevant to cancer therapy including enhanced Fenton/Fenton-like catalysis for chemodynamic therapy, efficient near-infrared photothermal conversion, robust magnetic responsiveness for targeting and hyperthermia, high drug-loading capacity, and multimodal MRI/fluorescence/photoacoustic imaging. Mechanistic sections detail how Fe-CBNs exploit the acidic, H2O2-rich tumor microenvironment to generate reactive oxygen species, trigger ferroptosis and apoptosis, and amplify heat-induced cytotoxicity under alternating magnetic fields or light irradiation. We further describe their roles as smart drug carriers, and as immunomodulators that repolarize tumor-associated macrophages, inhibit epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and synergize with chemotherapy and immune checkpoint blockade. Finally, we discuss translational challenges and future opportunities, including stimuli-responsive and ligand-targeted designs, logic-gated therapeutic cascades, and machine-learning-guided materials optimization. The evidence positions Fe-CBNs as promising next-generation theranostic nanoplatforms capable of uniting chemodynamic therapy, photothermal/photodynamic and magnetic hyperthermia, ferroptosis induction, drug delivery, immunotherapy, and image guidance within integrated, patient-tailored cancer treatments.